Facilitating factors and barriers for use of medications to treat opioid use disorder (MOUD) among justice-involved individuals in rural Appalachia.

The purpose of this qualitative study is to assess facilitating factors and barriers for medications to treat opioid use disorder (MOUD) initiation among justice-involved individuals in one rural Appalachian community, as well as how those factors may differ across the three types of Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved medications. Qualitative interviews were conducted with rural justice-involved individuals (N = 10) with a history of opioid use in the target community. Overall, participants demonstrated knowledge of the different types of MOUD and their pharmacological properties, but limited overall health literacy around opioid use disorder and MOUD treatment. Treatment access was hampered by transportation, time burdens, and costs. Findings call for research into improving health literacy education, training, and resources to decrease stigma and increase access to MOUD, particularly in light of the ongoing opioid crisis. State policies also need to increase access to all FDA medications among justice-involved individuals, as well as supporting a care continuum from facility entry, release, and community re-entry.

An Exploratory Examination of Social Media Use and Risky Sexual Practices: A Profile of Women in Rural Appalachia Who Use Drugs.

HIV/HCV risk behavior among women who use drugs is often exacerbated within high risk networks. The use of social media platforms such as Facebook to identify sex partners within these high-risk networks has not been examined among rural Appalachian women who use drugs. This paper provides an exploratory examination of Facebook use to identify sex partners among rural Appalachian women who use drugs, as well as associated risky sexual practices. Rural Appalachian women were randomly selected from two rural jails, consented, screened for eligibility (including drug use), and interviewed prior to jail release. Findings indicated that using Facebook to meet sex partners was associated with exchanging sex for drugs or money and having a male casual partner during the same time frame. These study findings suggest that the use of social media for high-risk sexual practices may provide a valuable platform for intervention delivery, particularly in resource-deprived areas where formal prevention and treatment services are limited.

Feasibility of using Facebook for HIV prevention: Implications for translational research among justice-involved women who use drugs in rural Appalachia.

Background: Justice-involved women from rural Appalachia face significant barriers to the utilization of evidence-based HIV prevention interventions in spite of high rates of injection drug use and risky sexual practices. Adapting evidence-based practices to incorporate the cultural uniqueness of the target population is needed in order to advance translational and clinical science in this area. This study provides a descriptive overview of indicators of feasibility and acceptability of an adapted version of the National Institute on Drug Abuse Standard HIV prevention intervention for delivery using Facebook through a small randomized controlled pilot study with rural Appalachian women. Method: Study methods include the random selection of rural Appalachian women from two local jails, screening for study eligibility, baseline data collection, random assignment to study interventions, and follow-up in the community three months post-release. Results: Results indicate that the feasibility of the approach was supported through study enrollment of the target population who reported regular Facebook use and HIV risk behaviors including drug use and sex. Acceptability of the intervention was demonstrated through enrollment in the study intervention, engagement in the intervention through Facebook, and indicators of HIV/HCV knowledge. Conclusions: Study findings contribute to the critical and unmet need to advance translational science on the delivery of evidence-based prevention interventions in real-world rural Appalachian settings to understudied, vulnerable individuals who are often overlooked in targeted prevention efforts.

Adaptation of a standard extended-release naltrexone (XR-NTX) protocol for rural re-entering offenders with OUD.

BACKGROUND: Despite a growing body of empirical support for the effectiveness of extended-release naltrexone (XR-NTX) to reduce opioid relapse among people with opioid use disorder (OUD) transitioning from a correctional facility to the community, continuity of care following release remains challenging. This paper describes a research-based adaptation of a state's standard of care XR-NTX protocol using the ADAPT-ITT framework for delivery in a non-traditional, non-treatment, community criminal justice setting (P&P office), as well as the expansion of services by a local Federally Qualified Health Center (FQHC) provider who would, for the first time, be going to the jail and P&P office to provide XR-NTX and related treatment. METHOD: The present study focuses on the first seven phases (Assessment through Training) of the ADAPT-ITT framework in the adaptation of the Department of Corrections (DOC) protocol in preparation for a pilot trial for induction in a rural jail and during the transition to a rural community. Expert clinical review and focus groups with key stakeholders in criminal justice supervision and the local providers in the FQHC informed the needed adaptations to the existing XR-NTX protocol for initiation at the jail and ongoing administrations in the community. RESULTS: Findings from stakeholder focus groups, study team review, topical expert review, and a theater test suggested that there were critical adaptations needed in both content and context at the patient and clinic level. CONCLUSION: Health and justice officials should consider the need to tailor and adapt evidence-based approaches for real-world locations that high-risk, justice-involved individuals visit in order to reduce barriers and increase access to critically needed treatment for OUD.

The role of law enforcement officers in responding to the opioid epidemic: A qualitative assessment.

Background: Opioid-related overdose deaths continue to rise with the ongoing opioid epidemic. In response, changes in the role of law enforcement officers have included being trained to administer naloxone to reverse overdoses and offering navigation and referrals to substance use treatment. Methods: This secondary data analysis includes qualitative data from law enforcement officers collected as part of a mixed-methods needs assessment from one Kentucky county. Law enforcement officers (n = 151) responded to a confidential, online survey using Qualtrics and a subsample also completed a qualitative interview (n = 6). Open-ended questions in the online survey and interviews included how the opioid epidemic has affected the individual's profession, specifically their role in reversing overdoses and providing referrals to individuals who misuse opioids. Results: Law enforcement officers surveyed indicated that they have expanded their professional roles to include providing naloxone to reverse opioid overdoses and referrals. While their specific roles and duties have changed to include naloxone administration to reverse opioid overdoses and providing referrals, officers felt that this was just part of their job in responding to the needs of the community. Officers reported that they have learned how to use (99%) and carry naloxone (87%) to reverse opioid related overdoses. The majority (92%) reported providing referrals (e.g., treatment and harm reduction resources) to individuals who misuse opioids. Conclusions: The opioid epidemic has changed the roles of law enforcement officers, including providing naloxone to reverse overdoses and referrals for treatment. Future research should continue to explore how substance misuse in the community changes the roles of law enforcement officers and how to best train and support officers as their roles evolve in response to these changes.

Rural Re-entry and Opioid Use: Identifying Health-Related Predictors of Relapse Among Formerly Incarcerated Women in Appalachia.

Introduction: Despite improved knowledge of the health care needs of formerly incarcerated women, there exists a gap regarding the relationship between health, health care access, and relapse among rural women returning to the community during the opioid epidemic. Purpose: With an emphasis on health care access, this study examined health-related factors associated with opioid relapse among women reentering the community in rural Appalachia. Methods: As part of a larger study, 400 rural women reporting a history of substance use were recruited from three Appalachian jails in Kentucky. Analyses focused on participants reporting a history of illicit opioid use prior to incarceration, who had also completed follow-up interviews at 6- and 12-months post-release from jail. Results: Fifty-five percent of participants reported relapse to opioids during the 12-month follow-up period. Compared to those who did not use opioids during this time, women who relapsed reported poorer mental and physical health, as well as encountered more barriers to needed health services. They were also more likely to report a usual source of care. Multivariate regression analyses reveal that, even when controlling for other known correlates of opioid use and relapse to any non-opioid drug during the follow-up period, the number of barriers to health service utilization was a significant predictor of opioid relapse. Implications: Stakeholders should address the complex reentry needs of women who use opioids in rural Appalachia. This includes examining innovative approaches to reduce extensive barriers to quality health care utilization, such as implementing telehealth for opioid use treatment.

Adaptation of the NIDA Standard for delivery via Facebook with justice-involved women in rural Appalachia.

Background: Rising rates of intravenous drug use (IDU) in Appalachia have necessitated new approaches to providing risk-reduction interventions in a manner which will be acceptable and accessible to specific at-risk populations-particularly those with limited access to traditional evidence-based interventions. Using the ADAPT-ITT framework, the overall goal of this study is to adapt an evidence-based HIV prevention intervention-the NIDA Standard-to meet the needs of rural drug-using women post-release from jail. Methods: Through a series of focus groups with rural incarcerated women, theater-testing with members of the target population, and iterative refinements with topical experts, we aimed to identify potential adaptations to content and context to improve the fit, feasibility, and acceptability of the NIDA Standard for this population using social media. Results: Study findings confirmed the need for a preventive risk-reduction intervention targeting this population post-release. Adaptations to intervention content focused on adding, simplifying, and ensuring continuous access to content in the NIDA Standard. Adaptations to context included modifications to how the intervention will be delivered and by whom, including consideration of unique issues related to delivery using Facebook (such as privacy and confidentiality). Conclusion: The use of Facebook for delivery of the NIDA Standard may hold promise for increasing reach, acceptability, and feasibility of intervening with rural women with IDU released from jails, particularly when compared with traditional face-to-face sessions. With minor content adaptations to meet participant needs and preferences, plus multiple context adaptations to enhance accessibility and acceptability, the adapted NIDA Standard is intended to retain its original effectiveness while improving important implementation outcomes key to scaling-up and increasing public health impact. Plain Language Summary: What is known about the topic? Injection drug use rates are high in rural Appalachia, and new approaches are needed to reduce the risk of HIV and HCV among injection drug using women involved in the criminal justice system in this region. While there are effective risk-reduction interventions for HIV and HCV, they are difficult to deliver in rural Appalachia and do not reach the women who need them. What does this paper add? This study describes the use of a systematic approach to improve the "fit" of an evidence-based intervention-the NIDA Standard-with the preferences and perspectives of injection drug using women involved with the justice system, aided by guidance from experts in a specific risk-reduction intervention (the NIDA Standard) and delivery of interventions using Facebook. Changes to the intervention to increase its acceptability and accessibility in this population included shifting delivery of the intervention to a closed Facebook group rather than in person; use of brief videos rather than written text to provide information; use of trusted local women to provide information through videos and Facebook posts; and inclusion of local information on community risk factors and resources. Implications for practice, research, or policy: The use of Facebook for delivery of the NIDA Standard holds promise for increasing reach, acceptability, and feasibility of risk reduction among rural injection drug using women released from jails. Next steps include testing the feasibility, acceptability, and effects of the adapted intervention in several rural Appalachian counties.

A Latent Profile Analysis of Rural Women who Use Drugs and Commit Crimes.

The majority of rural Appalachian women in jail meet criteria for a drug use disorder and need treatment. Using a latent profile analysis of a random sample of rural women in Appalachian jails (N=400), the current study established groups of women based on criminal history, drug use in the commission of crimes, and role of the partner's drug use in the commission of crimes. Analysis found five distinct profiles of rural women based on involvement of criminal activities as a function of drug use severity. Results suggest that among criminally involved rural women, severity of drug use is a critical factor in the criminal career. Findings can be used to better inform treatment approaches and tailor treatment to meet the needs of this vulnerable population.

The Impact of Policy Changes on Heroin and Nonmedical Prescription Opioid Use among an Incarcerated Population in Kentucky, 2008-2016.

In response to the opioid epidemic, there have been several national and state-level policies enacted. Consideration of how criminal justice-involved individuals are affected by such policies has received limited attention, despite disproportionately higher use among this population. Bivariate statistics examined yearly trends and logistic regressiosns examined demographic correlates of nonmedical prescription opioid and heroin use among Kentucky inmates over an eight-year time-span of important national and local policy changes (n=34,542). Results indicate that among incarcerated individuals, prior use of heroin increased 204% from 2008 to 2016, with increases possibly linked to key policy changes associated with OxyContin reformulation and state implementation of a prescription drug monitoring program. The current incarcerated population had more severe use patterns when considering general population research. Consideration of criminal justice-involved populations is crucial to understanding and treating the opioid epidemic.

Inhibitory-control training for cocaine use disorder and contingency management for clinic attendance: A randomized pilot study of feasibility, acceptability and initial efficacy.

BACKGROUND: Cocaine abusers have impaired inhibitory Cocaine use is associated with impaired inhibitory control. This study determined the feasibility, acceptability, and initial efficacy of inhibitory-control training to cocaine or neutral images in cocaine use disorder patients. METHODS: Participants were randomly assigned to inhibitory-control training to cocaine (N = 20) or neutral (N = 20) images. Feasibility was assessed by percent of patients eligible for participation after a behavioral qualification session, time-to-target enrollment, percent of clinic visits attended, percent of participants who completed 80 % or more training sessions, and percent of follow-up visits attended. Acceptability was determined using a Treatment Acceptability Questionnaire. Initial efficacy was determined during training and a follow-up phase with urine samples tested qualitatively and quantitatively for cocaine. Participants in both conditions received monetary incentives delivered on an escalating schedule for clinic attendance. RESULTS: The groups were well matched and no differences on demographic or substance use variables were observed. Attendance was stable during the treatment period with high overall attendance in both groups (average sessions attended: cocaine image group = 97 %; neutral image group = 90 %). No group differences were observed in the percentage of follow-up sessions attended (95 % for the cocaine-image group; 88 % of neutral-image group). Ratings on the Treatment Acceptability Questionnaire were high (i.e., mean scores ≥ 80 for all items rated on 101-unit visual analog scales). Participants in the cocaine- and neutral-image conditions did not differ significantly in terms of cocaine use during the training nor follow-up phase. Inhibitory-control training improved stop signal performance but not delay discounting. CONCLUSION: The procedures were feasible and acceptable. Inhibitory-control training to cocaine images did not reduce cocaine use relative to the neutral image training condition. The inability to detect significant differences in cocaine use across the groups is not surprising given the small sample size. More research is needed to determine the utility of inhibitory-control training for cocaine use disorder. Future trials should determine whether inhibitory-control training to cocaine images augments the efficacy of other behavioral interventions.

A mixed-methods assessment of the impact of the opioid epidemic on first responder burnout.

BACKGROUND: First responders have demanding jobs and report experiencing burnout. The opioid epidemic has added to first responder workloads, which could contribute to increased burnout. This mixed-methods study examined burnout among first responders by: 1) describing burnout among first responders specifically related to workload demands associated with the opioid epidemic; 2) exploring first responder perspectives on how the opioid epidemic has affected their profession; and 3) conducting exploratory analyses to examine how burnout and perspectives on the effect of the opioid epidemic differ across first responder professions. METHODS: First responders completed an online survey (n = 196), including a burnout questionnaire, as part of a county-wide opioid misuse resource and needs assessment. A subset completed qualitative interviews (n = 12). In both the survey and interviews, participants were asked their perspectives on how the opioid epidemic impacted their profession. RESULTS: One-third (33%; n = 179) of survey respondents reported high burnout scores. The majority saw community opioid misuse as a significant problem (98%; n = 188) that has affected their profession (95%; n = 188). Qualitative analyses supported survey findings with participants expressing increased workloads and emotional effects related to the opioid epidemic. CONCLUSIONS: First responders reported experiencing burnout, increased workloads, and negative emotional effects related to their role in responding to the opioid epidemic. Despite this, first responders view responding to community opioid misuse as part of their professional role for which they have received specialized training. Future research should continue to explore the impact of the opioid epidemic on first responders, including how to prevent or address burnout.

HIV Prevention in Rural Appalachian Jails: Implications for Re-entry Risk Reduction Among Women Who Use Drugs.

Rural women are at risk for health consequences (such as HIV) associated with substance misuse, but targeted interventions are limited for this population. Jails provide an underutilized opportunity for outreach to high-risk women in rural Appalachian communities. Rural women were randomized to either the NIDA Standard education intervention (n = 201) or the NIDA Standard plus motivational interviewing (MI-HIV; n = 199) while in jail. Outcomes focused on HIV risk behaviors 3 months post-release from jail. Decreases in HIV risk behaviors were observed at follow-up across conditions. Although participants in the MI-HIV group showed reductions in outcomes compared to the NIDA Standard group (OR = 0.82-0.93), these estimates did not reach significance (p values > .57). HIV education interventions can be associated with risk-reduction behaviors. These findings support the need for increased access to prevention education in criminal justice venues, particularly in rural communities.

Influence of Cocaine-Related Images and Alcohol Administration on Inhibitory Control in Cocaine Users.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol use and impulsivity, including decreased inhibitory control, predict poor treatment outcomes for individuals with cocaine use disorders. This study sought to determine the effects of alcohol administration on inhibitory control following cocaine-related and neutral cues on the Attentional Bias-Behavioral Activation (ABBA) task in cocaine users. We hypothesized that the proportion of inhibitory failures would increase following cocaine, compared to neutral, cues. We further hypothesized that there would be an interaction between alcohol administration and task version, such that alcohol would impair inhibitory control following cocaine, but not neutral cues. METHODS: Fifty current cocaine users completed this mixed-model, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study over 2 experimental sessions. The ABBA task was completed following alcohol administration (0.0 and 0.65 g/kg). Subject-rated drug effect and physiological measures were collected prior to and after alcohol administration. RESULTS: Proportion of inhibitory failures was increased following cocaine-related cues compared to neutral cues independent of alcohol dose. Alcohol administration also produced prototypical subject-rated drug effects. CONCLUSIONS: A better understanding of the relationship between alcohol consumption and inhibitory control in cocaine users could direct the development of interventions to decrease the risk of relapse in individuals who drink and display impaired inhibitory control.

A pilot investigation of acute inhibitory control training in cocaine users.

BACKGROUND: Disrupted response inhibition and presence of drug-cue attentional bias in cocaine-using individuals have predicted poor treatment outcomes. Inhibitory control training could help improve treatment outcomes by strengthening cognitive control. This pilot study assessed the effects of acute inhibitory control training to drug- and non-drug-related cues on response inhibition performance and cocaine-cue attentional bias in cocaine-using individuals. METHODS: Participants who met criteria for a cocaine-use disorder underwent five sessions of inhibitory control training to either non-drug-related cues (i.e., rectangles) or cocaine cues (n=10/condition) in a single day. Response inhibition and attentional bias were assessed prior to and following training using the stop-signal task and visual-probe task with eye tracking, respectively. RESULTS: Training condition groups did not differ on demographics, inhibitory control training performance, response inhibition, or cocaine-cue attentional bias. Response inhibition performance improved as a function of inhibitory control training in both conditions. Cocaine-cue attentional bias was observed, but did not change as a function of inhibitory control training in either condition. CONCLUSIONS: Response inhibition in cocaine-using individuals was augmented by acute inhibitory control training, which may improve treatment outcomes through better behavioral inhibition. Future studies should investigate longer-term implementation of inhibitory control training, as well as combining inhibitory control training with other treatment modalities.

Acute buspirone dosing enhances abuse-related subjective effects of oral methamphetamine.

There is not an approved pharmacotherapy for treating methamphetamine use disorder. This study sought to determine the effects of acute buspirone treatment on the subjective and cardiovascular effects of oral methamphetamine in order to provide an initial assessment of the utility, safety, and tolerability of buspirone for managing methamphetamine use disorder. We predicted that acute buspirone administration would reduce the subjective effects of methamphetamine. We also predicted that the combination of buspirone and methamphetamine would be safe and well tolerated. Ten subjects completed the protocol, which tested three methamphetamine doses (0, 15, and 30mg) in combination with two buspirone doses (0 and 30mg) across 6 experimental sessions. Subjective effects and physiological measures were collected at regular intervals prior to and after dose administration. Methamphetamine produced prototypical subjective and cardiovascular effects. Acute buspirone administration increased some of the abuse-related subjective effects of methamphetamine and also attenuated some cardiovascular effects. The combination of oral methamphetamine and buspirone was safe and well tolerated. Acute buspirone administration may increase the abuse liability of oral methamphetamine. Chronic buspirone dosing studies remain to be conducted, but given preclinical findings and the outcomes of this work, the utility of buspirone for treating methamphetamine use disorder appears limited.

Alcohol Administration Increases Cocaine Craving But Not Cocaine Cue Attentional Bias.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol consumption is a known antecedent to cocaine relapse. Through associative conditioning, it is hypothesized that alcohol increases incentive motivation for cocaine and thus the salience of cocaine-related cues, which are important in maintaining drug-taking behavior. Cocaine-using individuals display a robust cocaine cue attentional bias as measured by fixation time during the visual probe task. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of alcohol administration on cocaine cue attentional bias using eye-tracking technology to directly measure attentional allocation. METHODS: Twenty current cocaine users completed a double-blind, placebo-controlled, within-subjects study that tested the effect of 3 doses of alcohol (0.00, 0.325, and 0.65 g/kg) on cocaine cue attentional bias using the visual probe task with eye-tracking technology. The participant-rated and physiological effects of alcohol were also assessed. RESULTS: Participants displayed a robust cocaine cue attentional bias following both placebo and alcohol administration as measured by fixation time, but not response time. Alcohol administration did not influence cocaine cue attentional bias, but increased craving for cocaine in a dose-dependent manner. Alcohol produced prototypic psychomotor and participant-rated effects. CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol administration increases cocaine craving but not cocaine cue attentional bias. Alcohol-induced cocaine craving suggests that alcohol increases incentive motivation for cocaine but not the salience of cocaine-related cues.

The magnitude of drug attentional bias is specific to substance use disorder.

The visual probe task with eye tracking is a sensitive measure of cocaine and alcohol cue attentional bias. Despite the high comorbidity between cocaine and alcohol dependence, attentional bias studies have examined the influence of cocaine- and alcohol-related cues separately. The aim of this experiment was to directly compare the magnitude of cocaine and alcohol cue attentional bias in individuals dependent on cocaine or cocaine and alcohol. Individuals who met criteria for cocaine dependence (n = 20) or both cocaine and alcohol dependence (n = 20) completed a visual probe task with eye tracking. Cocaine-dependent participants displayed an attentional bias toward cocaine, but not alcohol. In contrast, cocaine-alcohol dependent participants displayed an attentional bias to both cocaine and alcohol, and the magnitude of these biases did not differ. The magnitude of cocaine cue attentional bias, however, was significantly smaller in the cocaine-alcohol dependent group compared to the cocaine-dependent group. These results suggest that fixation time during the visual probe task is sensitive to clinically relevant differences in substance use disorders. The incentive value of cocaine-related cues, however, may differ for individuals who are also dependent on alcohol.

Cocaine-related stimuli impair inhibitory control in cocaine users following short stimulus onset asynchronies.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Cocaine users display a significant increase in inhibitory failures following cocaine-related images compared with neutral images in a modified cued Go/No-Go task, the Attentional Bias-Behavioral Activation (ABBA) task. The aim of this study was to demonstrate that stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) impacts inhibitory failures on the ABBA task. DESIGN: A between-subjects experiment. SETTING: An out-patient research unit in the United States. PARTICIPANTS: Ninety-one cocaine users recruited from the community. MEASUREMENTS: Participants were assigned to groups in which they saw either cocaine (n=46) or neutral (n=45) images as the go condition. Cues were presented for one of five SOAs (i.e. 100, 200, 300, 400 or 500 ms) before a go or no-go target was displayed. FINDINGS: Participants in the cocaine go condition had a significantly higher proportion of inhibitory failures to no-go targets (F4,356=2.50, P=0.04) with significantly more inhibitory failures following all SOAs (P<0.05) than those in the neutral go condition. Within the cocaine go condition, significantly more inhibitory failures were observed following the 100 and 200 ms SOAs than after the 300, 400 or 500 ms SOAs (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Cocaine-related stimuli appear to decrease inhibitory control in cocaine users at short (100 and 200 ms) stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs: the amount of time between the start of one stimulus and the start of another stimulus), but not at longer (300, 400 and 500 ms) SOAs.

Naltrexone and bupropion, alone or combined, do not alter the reinforcing effects of intranasal methamphetamine.

Naltrexone and bupropion, when administered alone in clinical trials, modestly reduce amphetamine use. Whether combining these drugs would result in greater reductions in methamphetamine taking relative to either drug alone is undetermined. This study examined the influence of naltrexone, bupropion and a naltrexone-bupropion combination on methamphetamine self-administration in humans. Seven subjects reporting recent illicit stimulant use completed a placebo-controlled, crossover, double-blind study in which the reinforcing, subject-rated and physiological effects of intranasal methamphetamine (0, 10 and 30 mg) were assessed during maintenance on placebo, naltrexone (50 mg), bupropion (300 mg/day), and naltrexone combined with bupropion. Methamphetamine maintained responding and produced prototypic subjective and physiological effects (e.g., increased ratings of good effects, elevated systolic blood pressure). Maintenance doses were well tolerated and generally devoid of effects. No maintenance condition reduced methamphetamine self-administration or systematically altered the subject-rated effects of methamphetamine. These outcomes demonstrate the robust behavioral effects of methamphetamine that could make it resistant to pharmacological manipulation. Although these outcomes indicate that this combination may be ineffective for managing methamphetamine use disorder, future work should evaluate longer maintenance dosing, individuals with different levels of amphetamine use, adding this combination to a behavioral platform and other pharmacotherapy combinations for reducing methamphetamine use.

Test-retest reliability of eye tracking during the visual probe task in cocaine-using adults.

BACKGROUND: Stimuli associated with cocaine use capture attention. Evidence suggests that fixation time measured on the visual probe task is a valid measure of cocaine cue attentional bias. The aim of this experiment was to demonstrate the test-retest reliability of cocaine cue attentional bias as measured by fixation time during the visual probe task. METHODS: In a within-subject, repeated-measures design, thirty-six non-treatment seeking cocaine-using adults completed a visual probe task with eye tracking. RESULTS: Participants displayed an attentional bias to cocaine-related images as measured by fixation time across two occasions (F (1, 35) = 56.5, p < 0.0001). A Pearson correlation indicated significant test-retest reliability for this effect (r = 0.51, p = 0.001). Response time failed to detect an attentional bias and test-retest reliability was low (r = 0.24, p = 0.16). CONCLUSION: Fixation time during the visual probe task is a reliable measure of cocaine cue attentional bias in cocaine-using adults across time.